—Ancient:
(see image) Cross-Sectional View of Jerusalem (West to East) as Seen from the South.(After Heyck, "Die Kreuzzüge.")
Capital at first of all Israel, later of the kingdom of Judah; chief city of Palestine; situated in 31° 46′ 45″ N. lat. and 35° 13′ 25″ E. long., upon the southern spur of a plateau the eastern side of which slopes from 2,460 ft. above sea-level north of the Temple area to 2,130 ft. at the southeastern extremity. The western hill is about 2,500 ft. high and slopes southeast from the Judean plateau. Jerusalem is surrounded upon all sides by valleys, of which those on the north are less pronounced than those on the other three sides. The principal two valleys start northwest of the present city. The first runs eastward with a slight southerly bend (the present Wadi al-Joz), then, deflecting directly south (formerly known as "Kidron Valley," the modern Wadi Sitti Maryam), divides the Mount of Olives from the city. The second runs directly south on the western side of the city, turns eastward at its southeastern extremity, then runs directly east, and joins the first valley near Bir Ayyub ("Job's Well"). It was called in olden times the "Valley of Hinnom," and is the modern Wadi al-Rababi, which is not to be identified with the first-mentioned valley, as Sir Charles Warren (in his "Recovery of Jerusalem," p. 290, and in Hastings,"Dict. Bible," s.v.) has done. Easy access to Jerusalem could be had only on the north and northwest. In olden times there were other valleys which divided up this complex; but these are now filled in by the accumulated rubbish of centuries. A third valley, commencing in the northwest where is now the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills (the lower and the upper cities of Josephus). This is probably the later Tyropœon ("Cheese-makers'") Valley, though it should be mentioned that W. R. Smith, Sayce, Birch, and Schwartz identify the Tyropœon with the Valley of Hinnom (Cheyne and Black, "Encyc. Bib.]." ii. 2423; Hastings, "Dict. Bible," ii. 387). A fourth valley led from the western hill (near the present Jaffa Gate) over to the Temple area: it is represented in modern Jerusalem by David street. A fifth cut the eastern hill into a northern and a southern part. Later Jerusalem was thus built upon four spurs (see frontispiece map of physical features of Jerusalem).
Jerusalem
Showing posts with label Israel. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Israel. Show all posts
Monday, December 3, 2001
In the El-Amarna Tablets
In the El-Amarna Tablets.
The earliest historical notices respecting Jerusalem come from the El-Amarna tablets. Before the fifteenth century B.C. Babylonian influences must have been present. There was a city called "Bit-Ninib" (Temple of the God Ninib) in the "district of Jerusalem "(Letter 180, 25). In the fifteenth century Amenophis III. had extended Egyptian rule so as to include Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Assyria. This empire, however, became disrupted through its own weight. The individual districts in Palestine and Syria had been first under native princes ("amelu") with an Egyptian resident ("rabiz"), and then under a "Hazzanu," who was in reality a viceroy of the Pharaoh. Jerusalem was the chief seat of one of the districts, in consequence of which it may at one time have changed its name ("the king has placed his name upon Jerusalem," Letter 180, 60). The four El-Amarna letters from Jerusalem were written by itsHazzanu, one Abdi Heba. The whole district was sorely pressed by the Habiri. The chief conspirators against him were Milki-il, his father-in-law Tagi, Shuardatu, the Banu Lapaya, the Banu Arzawa, and Adaya, a military chief; they prevented him from personally reporting to his sovereign, upon whom he impressed the fact that if reenforcements were not sent, the whole "land of the King" would be lost. He protested his loyalty, and mentioned the presents he had sent to the king by the latter's officer Shuta. How long the conspiracy had lasted is not known. Before that, an Egyptian special officer (rabiz) had been sent to Jerusalem.
(see image) One of the El-Amarna Tablets Mentioning Abdi Heba of Jerusalem.(From Ball, "Light from the East.")
The Kash (?) had also entered Abdi Heba's dominions; and one city had gone over to the Kilti. From another of the El-Amarna letters (182, 5) it appears that Jerusalem itself was in the hands of rebels, and that Egyptian troops which had been sent under Haya had been detained in Gaza. It was evidently a period of general anarchy, due to the break-up of the Egyptian power.
Jerusalem
The earliest historical notices respecting Jerusalem come from the El-Amarna tablets. Before the fifteenth century B.C. Babylonian influences must have been present. There was a city called "Bit-Ninib" (Temple of the God Ninib) in the "district of Jerusalem "(Letter 180, 25). In the fifteenth century Amenophis III. had extended Egyptian rule so as to include Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Assyria. This empire, however, became disrupted through its own weight. The individual districts in Palestine and Syria had been first under native princes ("amelu") with an Egyptian resident ("rabiz"), and then under a "Hazzanu," who was in reality a viceroy of the Pharaoh. Jerusalem was the chief seat of one of the districts, in consequence of which it may at one time have changed its name ("the king has placed his name upon Jerusalem," Letter 180, 60). The four El-Amarna letters from Jerusalem were written by itsHazzanu, one Abdi Heba. The whole district was sorely pressed by the Habiri. The chief conspirators against him were Milki-il, his father-in-law Tagi, Shuardatu, the Banu Lapaya, the Banu Arzawa, and Adaya, a military chief; they prevented him from personally reporting to his sovereign, upon whom he impressed the fact that if reenforcements were not sent, the whole "land of the King" would be lost. He protested his loyalty, and mentioned the presents he had sent to the king by the latter's officer Shuta. How long the conspiracy had lasted is not known. Before that, an Egyptian special officer (rabiz) had been sent to Jerusalem.
(see image) One of the El-Amarna Tablets Mentioning Abdi Heba of Jerusalem.(From Ball, "Light from the East.")
The Kash (?) had also entered Abdi Heba's dominions; and one city had gone over to the Kilti. From another of the El-Amarna letters (182, 5) it appears that Jerusalem itself was in the hands of rebels, and that Egyptian troops which had been sent under Haya had been detained in Gaza. It was evidently a period of general anarchy, due to the break-up of the Egyptian power.
Jerusalem
The Name
The Name.
The name "Jerusalem" is written in the Old Testament and upon most of the old Hebrew coins defectively , though punctuated "Yerushalayim" as a "kere perpetuum" (with the exception of five places where the "yod" is added; Frensdorff, "Massora Magna," p. 293). The Aramaic form, "Yerushlem" (Ezra iv. 8, 20, 24, 51), the Syriac "Urishlem," the Septuagint transcription 'Ιερουσαλημ, the Assyrian "Urusalim" (El-Amarna tablets) and "Ursalimu" (Sennacherib), point to an original pronunciation "Yerushalem"; the ending "-ayim" either being due to a diphthongization or representing a dual formation (König, "Lehrgebäude," ii. pt. 1, p. 437). A shortened form is perhaps to be found in "Shalem" (Gen. xiv. 18; Ps. lxxvi. 3; comp. Josephus, "Ant." i. 10, § 2), known also to the Arabs ("Shallam," in Yakut, "Geographisches Wörterb." iii. 315). Several etymologies for the word have been suggested; e.g., = "possession of peace" or "of Salem"; "foundation of peace" or "of Shalem [God of peace]"; according to the Midrash it is made up of "Shalem," the name given to the city by Shem, and "Yir'eh," that given to it by Abraham (Gen. R. lvi. 10; Midr. Teh. to Ps. lxxvi. 3). A more plausible derivation makes it the equivalent of "Uru-shalim" (="City of [the god] Shalim"; comp. the Assyrian god Shalman or Shulman, the Phenician [Greek Σαλαμαν], and the Egyptian Sharamana [Zimmern, in "K. A. T." 3d ed., pp. 224, 475; Praetorius, in "Z. D. M. G." lvii. p. 782), "Uri" having become "Yeru" by metathesis (see Haupt in "Isaiah," in "S. B. O. T." Eng. transl., p. 100). In the Greek period the name was Hellenized into Ιεροσόλνμα (Sibyllines, x. 103, New Testament, Josephus, Philo, and the classical writers). Following the New Testament, the Vulgate has both "Hierusalem" and "Hierosolyma" (or "Ierusalem," "Ierosolyma"). Philo uses the name Ιερόπολις (ed. Mangey, ii. 524). Under Hadrian (135) the city was renamed "Ælia Capitolina," from which Ptolemy took his Καπιτολιας. The Arabs at times preserved the ancient forms "Urishalam," "Urishallam," "Uraslam" (Yakut, l.c. i. 402), or "Iliya" (ib. 423), or more commonly "Bait al-Makdis" or "al-Mukaddas" (ib. iv. 590); in modern parlance, "Al-kuds al-Sharif" or simply "Al-kuds" = "the Sanctuary."
(see image) Sketch Showing Topographical Features of Jerusalem.(After Fulton, "The Beautiful Land.")
Jerusalem
The name "Jerusalem" is written in the Old Testament and upon most of the old Hebrew coins defectively , though punctuated "Yerushalayim" as a "kere perpetuum" (with the exception of five places where the "yod" is added; Frensdorff, "Massora Magna," p. 293). The Aramaic form, "Yerushlem" (Ezra iv. 8, 20, 24, 51), the Syriac "Urishlem," the Septuagint transcription 'Ιερουσαλημ, the Assyrian "Urusalim" (El-Amarna tablets) and "Ursalimu" (Sennacherib), point to an original pronunciation "Yerushalem"; the ending "-ayim" either being due to a diphthongization or representing a dual formation (König, "Lehrgebäude," ii. pt. 1, p. 437). A shortened form is perhaps to be found in "Shalem" (Gen. xiv. 18; Ps. lxxvi. 3; comp. Josephus, "Ant." i. 10, § 2), known also to the Arabs ("Shallam," in Yakut, "Geographisches Wörterb." iii. 315). Several etymologies for the word have been suggested; e.g., = "possession of peace" or "of Salem"; "foundation of peace" or "of Shalem [God of peace]"; according to the Midrash it is made up of "Shalem," the name given to the city by Shem, and "Yir'eh," that given to it by Abraham (Gen. R. lvi. 10; Midr. Teh. to Ps. lxxvi. 3). A more plausible derivation makes it the equivalent of "Uru-shalim" (="City of [the god] Shalim"; comp. the Assyrian god Shalman or Shulman, the Phenician [Greek Σαλαμαν], and the Egyptian Sharamana [Zimmern, in "K. A. T." 3d ed., pp. 224, 475; Praetorius, in "Z. D. M. G." lvii. p. 782), "Uri" having become "Yeru" by metathesis (see Haupt in "Isaiah," in "S. B. O. T." Eng. transl., p. 100). In the Greek period the name was Hellenized into Ιεροσόλνμα (Sibyllines, x. 103, New Testament, Josephus, Philo, and the classical writers). Following the New Testament, the Vulgate has both "Hierusalem" and "Hierosolyma" (or "Ierusalem," "Ierosolyma"). Philo uses the name Ιερόπολις (ed. Mangey, ii. 524). Under Hadrian (135) the city was renamed "Ælia Capitolina," from which Ptolemy took his Καπιτολιας. The Arabs at times preserved the ancient forms "Urishalam," "Urishallam," "Uraslam" (Yakut, l.c. i. 402), or "Iliya" (ib. 423), or more commonly "Bait al-Makdis" or "al-Mukaddas" (ib. iv. 590); in modern parlance, "Al-kuds al-Sharif" or simply "Al-kuds" = "the Sanctuary."
(see image) Sketch Showing Topographical Features of Jerusalem.(After Fulton, "The Beautiful Land.")
Jerusalem
Resists the Israelites
Resists the Israelites.
In Hebrew annals Jerusalem is first mentioned in connection with Melchizedek, King of Salem (Gen. xiv. 18), then with the incursions of the Israelites after the taking of Ai. It was one of the five cities of the Amorites, who seem to have succeeded to the Egyptian power in southern Palestine. Each of these cities had its prince ("melek"), that of Jerusalem being Adoni-zedek, who took the lead against the city of Gibeon (Josh. x. 1 et seq.). All the princes were taken, slain, and hanged at Makkedah (see, also, the list, ib. xii. 10). The relation of the inhabitants of Jerusalem to the Jebusites can not now be determined. They may themselves have been Jebusites; at least, the latter were not completely driven out at the time (ib. xv. 63). In fact, Jerusalem is expressly called a "foreign city," not belonging to the Israelites (Judges xix. 12); and the Jebusites are said to have lived there for very many years together with the Benjamites (ib. i. 21; according to Josh. xv. 63, "with the children of Judah"), in whose territory the city lay. At one time the city seems to have been called "Jebus" (Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 28; Judges xix. 10). It was at Jerusalem that Adoni-bezek died (Judges i. 7). Finally the Judahites took the place, burned it, and killed its inhabitants. It must have been soon rebuilt; for in the early history of David (I Sam. xvii. 54) it is again called by its old name, "Jerusalem." Perhaps only the "lower city" had been taken (Josephus, "Ant." v. 2, § 2)—just as in Maccabean times the Acra or citadel was held for twenty-six years by the Syrian garrison—which would explain the apparent contradiction between verses 8 and 21 of Judges i. (Moore, "Judges," p. 21). The name "Zion" seems already to have been attached to a portion of the city; at least the "Mezudat ziyyon" is mentioned (II Sam. v. 7; I Chron. xi. 5). But the place was renamed by David "'Ir Dawid" (= "City of David"), in the same manner as Assyrian rulers were wont to give their names to captured cities. Though dignified by the name "'Ir," the town need not necessarily have been large. In addition to the fortress, it must have contained some place of worship, besides houses for the people and the soldiers. What the "zinnor" (II Sam. v. 8) was is not known. The word is usually rendered "watercourse" (LXX. παραξιφις (?); Aquila, κρουνισμος = "stream"; Symmachus, ἐπαλξις = "battlement," "parapet"; according to later Hebrew usage, "canal," "aqueduct").
Jerusalem
In Hebrew annals Jerusalem is first mentioned in connection with Melchizedek, King of Salem (Gen. xiv. 18), then with the incursions of the Israelites after the taking of Ai. It was one of the five cities of the Amorites, who seem to have succeeded to the Egyptian power in southern Palestine. Each of these cities had its prince ("melek"), that of Jerusalem being Adoni-zedek, who took the lead against the city of Gibeon (Josh. x. 1 et seq.). All the princes were taken, slain, and hanged at Makkedah (see, also, the list, ib. xii. 10). The relation of the inhabitants of Jerusalem to the Jebusites can not now be determined. They may themselves have been Jebusites; at least, the latter were not completely driven out at the time (ib. xv. 63). In fact, Jerusalem is expressly called a "foreign city," not belonging to the Israelites (Judges xix. 12); and the Jebusites are said to have lived there for very many years together with the Benjamites (ib. i. 21; according to Josh. xv. 63, "with the children of Judah"), in whose territory the city lay. At one time the city seems to have been called "Jebus" (Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 28; Judges xix. 10). It was at Jerusalem that Adoni-bezek died (Judges i. 7). Finally the Judahites took the place, burned it, and killed its inhabitants. It must have been soon rebuilt; for in the early history of David (I Sam. xvii. 54) it is again called by its old name, "Jerusalem." Perhaps only the "lower city" had been taken (Josephus, "Ant." v. 2, § 2)—just as in Maccabean times the Acra or citadel was held for twenty-six years by the Syrian garrison—which would explain the apparent contradiction between verses 8 and 21 of Judges i. (Moore, "Judges," p. 21). The name "Zion" seems already to have been attached to a portion of the city; at least the "Mezudat ziyyon" is mentioned (II Sam. v. 7; I Chron. xi. 5). But the place was renamed by David "'Ir Dawid" (= "City of David"), in the same manner as Assyrian rulers were wont to give their names to captured cities. Though dignified by the name "'Ir," the town need not necessarily have been large. In addition to the fortress, it must have contained some place of worship, besides houses for the people and the soldiers. What the "zinnor" (II Sam. v. 8) was is not known. The word is usually rendered "watercourse" (LXX. παραξιφις (?); Aquila, κρουνισμος = "stream"; Symmachus, ἐπαλξις = "battlement," "parapet"; according to later Hebrew usage, "canal," "aqueduct").
Jerusalem
Situation of Zion
Situation of Zion.
The exact situation of these early settlements has always been a matter of dispute. The author of I Macc. iv. 37 says expressly that the Temple was built upon Mt. Zion; and the presence of St. Mary's Well and the Siloam Pool seems to show that the natural position of the ancient fortress was upon the edge of the southeastern hill, where, as the excavations of Guthe and Bliss have shown, the level of the ground was much higher than at present. It is true that later tradition, both Jewish and Christian, agrees in placing Zion upon the southwestern hill; but even the latest attempts of Karl Rückert ("Die Lage des Berges Sion," Freiburg, 1898), Georg Gatt ("Sion in Jerusalem," Brixen, 1900, and "Zur Topographie Jerusalems," in "Z. D. P. V." xxv. 178), and C. Mommert ("Topographie des Alten Jerusalems," Leipsic, 1902) have not been successful in harmonizing this theory with the Biblical data. The theory is based chiefly upon (1) the direction of the old north wall, ending at the Haram, as described by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2), and south of which Zion must (?) have stood, and (2) the place of David's burial, which, according to tradition, is usually placed on the southwestern hill (see "Z. A. P. V." xxiv. 180-185).
There were only two natural water sources near Jerusalem, En-rogel and Gihon, respectively east and southeast of the city. The first (II Sam. xvii. 17; I Kings i. 9) has generally been identified withSt. Mary's, or the Virgin's, Spring, largely because the flight of steps running from the spring to Silwan is to-day called "ZaHwayleh," i.e., "Zoheleth" (I Kings l.c.). But the distance is too great; and the application of the term to these particular steps is not certain. En-rogel, according to tradition ("Ant." vii. 14, § 4), was in the king's garden; and Mitchell's identification of it with the Bir Ayyub is worthy of acceptance ("Jour. Bib. Lit." xxii. 108). The well Gihon (I Kings i. 33, 35, 38; II Chron. xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14) is the so-called "Virgin's Spring." In addition, there were several pools: the "old pool" (Isa. xxii. 11), now called the Patriarch's Pool, northwest of the city; the "lower pool" (Isa. xxii. 9), now known as the Birkat al-Hamra; and the "upper pool" (ib. vii. 3, xxxvi. 2; II Kings xviii. 17), probably the Mamilla Pool, west of the Jaffa Gate, which fed the "old pool." In regard to the "Serpents' Pool," see below.
Jerusalem
The exact situation of these early settlements has always been a matter of dispute. The author of I Macc. iv. 37 says expressly that the Temple was built upon Mt. Zion; and the presence of St. Mary's Well and the Siloam Pool seems to show that the natural position of the ancient fortress was upon the edge of the southeastern hill, where, as the excavations of Guthe and Bliss have shown, the level of the ground was much higher than at present. It is true that later tradition, both Jewish and Christian, agrees in placing Zion upon the southwestern hill; but even the latest attempts of Karl Rückert ("Die Lage des Berges Sion," Freiburg, 1898), Georg Gatt ("Sion in Jerusalem," Brixen, 1900, and "Zur Topographie Jerusalems," in "Z. D. P. V." xxv. 178), and C. Mommert ("Topographie des Alten Jerusalems," Leipsic, 1902) have not been successful in harmonizing this theory with the Biblical data. The theory is based chiefly upon (1) the direction of the old north wall, ending at the Haram, as described by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2), and south of which Zion must (?) have stood, and (2) the place of David's burial, which, according to tradition, is usually placed on the southwestern hill (see "Z. A. P. V." xxiv. 180-185).
There were only two natural water sources near Jerusalem, En-rogel and Gihon, respectively east and southeast of the city. The first (II Sam. xvii. 17; I Kings i. 9) has generally been identified withSt. Mary's, or the Virgin's, Spring, largely because the flight of steps running from the spring to Silwan is to-day called "ZaHwayleh," i.e., "Zoheleth" (I Kings l.c.). But the distance is too great; and the application of the term to these particular steps is not certain. En-rogel, according to tradition ("Ant." vii. 14, § 4), was in the king's garden; and Mitchell's identification of it with the Bir Ayyub is worthy of acceptance ("Jour. Bib. Lit." xxii. 108). The well Gihon (I Kings i. 33, 35, 38; II Chron. xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14) is the so-called "Virgin's Spring." In addition, there were several pools: the "old pool" (Isa. xxii. 11), now called the Patriarch's Pool, northwest of the city; the "lower pool" (Isa. xxii. 9), now known as the Birkat al-Hamra; and the "upper pool" (ib. vii. 3, xxxvi. 2; II Kings xviii. 17), probably the Mamilla Pool, west of the Jaffa Gate, which fed the "old pool." In regard to the "Serpents' Pool," see below.
Jerusalem
City of David
City of David.
The city at this epoch may have extended to the southwestern hill; but it is not clear what enlargements were due to David. In II Sam. v. 9 it is said that he built "round about from Millo and inward." The Millo, however, was built by Solomon (I Kings ix. 15, 24); and the reference at the time of David may be to the place where in later times the Millo was. Whether the latter was part of the wall or a citadel (LXX. ή ăκρα) is not known. It was, however, part of the defense of the city, and is mentioned in connection with the walls (ib.). It was strengthened by Hezekiah upon the approach of Sennacherib (II Chron. xxxii. 5); and may have been an artificial terrace (comp. the Assyrian "Mulu" and "Tamlu").
A palace of stone and of cedar-wood from Lebanon was built for David by Tyrian workmen (II Sam. v. 11, vii. 2). It must have stood somewhere between the Temple and the Siloam Pool, from the latter of which steps led up to the city of David (Neh. iii. 15). Some sort of tabernacle must also have been erected for him, (, II Sam. vi. 17; , ib. vii. 2); for he brought the Ark from the house of Abinadab in Gibeah, first to the house of Obed-edom, and then to the city of David (ib. vi. 3, 11). It was here that he deposited the gold and the silver that he had taken from the Aramean princes and from the Moabites and Ammonites, whom he had subdued (ib. viii. 11 et seq.). The plague that appeared in the land toward the end of David's reign does not seem to have touched Jerusalem. It was supposed to have been stayed mysteriously at a threshing-floor on Mt. Moriah, north of the city of David, belonging to one Araunah or Aranyah, which place was then bought by David, who erected an altar there (II Sam. xxiv. 14 et seq.; I Chron. xxi. 15 et seq.). David was buried "in the city of David" (I Kings ii. 10). The site of the tomb is unknown; but it was situated probably in the rocks of the southeastern hill ("Z. D. P. V." iii. 210, v. 330). It is mentioned in Neh. iii. 16 as being near to the steps (see above)
Jerusalem
The city at this epoch may have extended to the southwestern hill; but it is not clear what enlargements were due to David. In II Sam. v. 9 it is said that he built "round about from Millo and inward." The Millo, however, was built by Solomon (I Kings ix. 15, 24); and the reference at the time of David may be to the place where in later times the Millo was. Whether the latter was part of the wall or a citadel (LXX. ή ăκρα) is not known. It was, however, part of the defense of the city, and is mentioned in connection with the walls (ib.). It was strengthened by Hezekiah upon the approach of Sennacherib (II Chron. xxxii. 5); and may have been an artificial terrace (comp. the Assyrian "Mulu" and "Tamlu").
A palace of stone and of cedar-wood from Lebanon was built for David by Tyrian workmen (II Sam. v. 11, vii. 2). It must have stood somewhere between the Temple and the Siloam Pool, from the latter of which steps led up to the city of David (Neh. iii. 15). Some sort of tabernacle must also have been erected for him, (, II Sam. vi. 17; , ib. vii. 2); for he brought the Ark from the house of Abinadab in Gibeah, first to the house of Obed-edom, and then to the city of David (ib. vi. 3, 11). It was here that he deposited the gold and the silver that he had taken from the Aramean princes and from the Moabites and Ammonites, whom he had subdued (ib. viii. 11 et seq.). The plague that appeared in the land toward the end of David's reign does not seem to have touched Jerusalem. It was supposed to have been stayed mysteriously at a threshing-floor on Mt. Moriah, north of the city of David, belonging to one Araunah or Aranyah, which place was then bought by David, who erected an altar there (II Sam. xxiv. 14 et seq.; I Chron. xxi. 15 et seq.). David was buried "in the city of David" (I Kings ii. 10). The site of the tomb is unknown; but it was situated probably in the rocks of the southeastern hill ("Z. D. P. V." iii. 210, v. 330). It is mentioned in Neh. iii. 16 as being near to the steps (see above)
Jerusalem
Improvements by Solomon
Improvements by Solomon.
Under Solomon the city took on a much grander aspect. There is now definite reference to a wall surrounding it (I Kings iii. 9, ix. 15), a part of which seems to have been the Millo mentioned above. This wall must have enclosed some portion left open by David (ib. xi. 27). Solomon erected a palace made up of various buildings (ib. iii. 1), which took thirteen years to build (ib. vii. 1). The Temple was commenced in the month Ziv (ib. vi. 1; see Temple); it occupied seven years in construction, and was finished in the month Bul (ib. vi. 38). With the help of a Tyrian, the two pillars Jachin and Boaz were fashioned out of bronze (ib. vii. 13 et seq., ix. 11). The Temple was made up of a forecourt, the Holy Place (40 × 20 × 30 ells), the Holy of Holies (a cube of 20 ells), and various smaller buildings adjoining. To this Temple the Ark was removed from the city of David on the Feast of Tabernacles (ib. viii. 1). With the assistance of Hiram of Tyre (I Kings v. 15 et seq.), Solomon built a palace for Pharaoh's daughter (ib. vii. 8), and the "house of the forest of Lebanon" ("bet ya'ar ha-Lebanon," ib. vii. 2), which measured 100 × 50 × 30 cubits, and the top part of which was used as an armory (ib. x. 16). All these buildings, constructed of stone and wood, seem to have stood in a sort of court ("Hazer"), around which was a wall of three courses of stone (ib. vii. 12). Smaller courts surrounded the individual buildings. Solomon is said to have embellished Jerusalem with silver and costly wood (ib. x. 27). In later years he built, also, a "bamah" to Chemosh and to Molech "in the Mount that is before Jerusalem" (ib. xi. 7, R. V.).
The extent of the city at this time might be gaged by tracing the probable line of the wall, if that line were at all certain. Some scholars believe that Solomon enclosed the western hill; the wall would then be the first of the three, which had sixty crenelations, mentioned by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2). It would accordingly have commenced at what was later the tower Hippicus, near the present Jaffa Gate; running eastward to the Xystus, it would then have encircled the greater part of the Temple mount; bending south and southwest, it would have skirted Ophel, though not including the Siloam Pool (Josephus says "above the fountains"); and, enclosing the present Jewish and Protestant cemeteries, it would then have turned north again, meeting the other end at the Jaffa Gate. Upon this supposition, the remains found in the excavations of Maudslay in 1865, successfully followed by Bliss in 1896-97, are parts of this wall. Where the towers Hananeel and Ha-Meah or Meah stood can not be ascertained. They are mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 38; Zech. xiv. 10; Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39. The former seems to have marked the northeast corner of the city; the latter, to have been on a wall leading westward from this corner.
Jerusalem
Under Solomon the city took on a much grander aspect. There is now definite reference to a wall surrounding it (I Kings iii. 9, ix. 15), a part of which seems to have been the Millo mentioned above. This wall must have enclosed some portion left open by David (ib. xi. 27). Solomon erected a palace made up of various buildings (ib. iii. 1), which took thirteen years to build (ib. vii. 1). The Temple was commenced in the month Ziv (ib. vi. 1; see Temple); it occupied seven years in construction, and was finished in the month Bul (ib. vi. 38). With the help of a Tyrian, the two pillars Jachin and Boaz were fashioned out of bronze (ib. vii. 13 et seq., ix. 11). The Temple was made up of a forecourt, the Holy Place (40 × 20 × 30 ells), the Holy of Holies (a cube of 20 ells), and various smaller buildings adjoining. To this Temple the Ark was removed from the city of David on the Feast of Tabernacles (ib. viii. 1). With the assistance of Hiram of Tyre (I Kings v. 15 et seq.), Solomon built a palace for Pharaoh's daughter (ib. vii. 8), and the "house of the forest of Lebanon" ("bet ya'ar ha-Lebanon," ib. vii. 2), which measured 100 × 50 × 30 cubits, and the top part of which was used as an armory (ib. x. 16). All these buildings, constructed of stone and wood, seem to have stood in a sort of court ("Hazer"), around which was a wall of three courses of stone (ib. vii. 12). Smaller courts surrounded the individual buildings. Solomon is said to have embellished Jerusalem with silver and costly wood (ib. x. 27). In later years he built, also, a "bamah" to Chemosh and to Molech "in the Mount that is before Jerusalem" (ib. xi. 7, R. V.).
The extent of the city at this time might be gaged by tracing the probable line of the wall, if that line were at all certain. Some scholars believe that Solomon enclosed the western hill; the wall would then be the first of the three, which had sixty crenelations, mentioned by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2). It would accordingly have commenced at what was later the tower Hippicus, near the present Jaffa Gate; running eastward to the Xystus, it would then have encircled the greater part of the Temple mount; bending south and southwest, it would have skirted Ophel, though not including the Siloam Pool (Josephus says "above the fountains"); and, enclosing the present Jewish and Protestant cemeteries, it would then have turned north again, meeting the other end at the Jaffa Gate. Upon this supposition, the remains found in the excavations of Maudslay in 1865, successfully followed by Bliss in 1896-97, are parts of this wall. Where the towers Hananeel and Ha-Meah or Meah stood can not be ascertained. They are mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 38; Zech. xiv. 10; Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39. The former seems to have marked the northeast corner of the city; the latter, to have been on a wall leading westward from this corner.
Jerusalem
As Capital of Judah.
After the partition of the kingdom Jerusalem suffered many vicissitudes. It was taken by Shishak of Egypt at the time of Rehoboam of Judah (I Kings xiv. 25-26); and Jehoash of Israel destroyed 400 cubits of the wall from the Ephraim Gate to the corner gate (II Kings xiv. 13). It seems probable that the wall was repaired under Uzziah; at least, according to II Chron. xxvi. 9, he built towers over three of the gates. The Ophel wall was further repairedor enlarged by Jotham (ib. xxvii. 3); and a gate, called in Jer. xxxvi. 10 the "new gate," was built in the north wall of the Temple court (II Kings xv. 35). The coming of Sennacherib (701) caused the rebuilding of some portion of the wall which in the course of time had become ruined; but Sennacherib withdrew and Jerusalem was spared a siege (see Nagel, "Der Zug des Sanherib Gegen Jerusalem," Leipsic, 1902; and Jensen in "Theol. Lit. Zeitung," 1904, 4, col. 103). Hezekiah is mentioned as having done this repairing. He also rebuilt the Millo, and especially erected "another wall outside" (Isa. xxxii. 10; II Chron. xxxii. 5). This is probably Josephus' second wall, which "took its beginning from that gate which they called Genneth, which belonged to the first wall: it only encompassed the northern quarter of the city and reached as far as the tower Antonia," the northwest corner of the Temple mount ("B. J." l.c.). This indicates the growth of the city to the north; the additional part being called "Mishneh" ("second city"; II Kings xxii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). Whether the Maktesh (Zeph. i. 11), in which the Phenician traders lived, was a part of the city can not be ascertained (Neh. xiii. 16; Zech. xiv. 21).
Jerusalem
After the partition of the kingdom Jerusalem suffered many vicissitudes. It was taken by Shishak of Egypt at the time of Rehoboam of Judah (I Kings xiv. 25-26); and Jehoash of Israel destroyed 400 cubits of the wall from the Ephraim Gate to the corner gate (II Kings xiv. 13). It seems probable that the wall was repaired under Uzziah; at least, according to II Chron. xxvi. 9, he built towers over three of the gates. The Ophel wall was further repairedor enlarged by Jotham (ib. xxvii. 3); and a gate, called in Jer. xxxvi. 10 the "new gate," was built in the north wall of the Temple court (II Kings xv. 35). The coming of Sennacherib (701) caused the rebuilding of some portion of the wall which in the course of time had become ruined; but Sennacherib withdrew and Jerusalem was spared a siege (see Nagel, "Der Zug des Sanherib Gegen Jerusalem," Leipsic, 1902; and Jensen in "Theol. Lit. Zeitung," 1904, 4, col. 103). Hezekiah is mentioned as having done this repairing. He also rebuilt the Millo, and especially erected "another wall outside" (Isa. xxxii. 10; II Chron. xxxii. 5). This is probably Josephus' second wall, which "took its beginning from that gate which they called Genneth, which belonged to the first wall: it only encompassed the northern quarter of the city and reached as far as the tower Antonia," the northwest corner of the Temple mount ("B. J." l.c.). This indicates the growth of the city to the north; the additional part being called "Mishneh" ("second city"; II Kings xxii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). Whether the Maktesh (Zeph. i. 11), in which the Phenician traders lived, was a part of the city can not be ascertained (Neh. xiii. 16; Zech. xiv. 21).
Jerusalem
Water-Supply
Water-Supply.
To Hezekiah was due also the regulation of the water-supply in Jerusalem, so that the city might be prepared for a siege. The only natural spring of real value is Gihon on the southeastern side in the Kidron Valley (now called "Virgin's Spring" or "Spring of the Steps"), which from early times seems to have been used to provide the city with water. Undoubted traces have been found of an early conduit, partly open and partly underground, which conducted the water from the spring around the hill into the city of David (perhaps the earlier "Shiloah" of Isa. viii. 6; see Schick in "Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement" [hereafter cited as "P. E. F. S."], 1886, p. 197). In 1867 a rock tunnel was discovered by Warren that brought the water westward into a basin cut in the rocks; to this access was had by a shaft from above (perhaps the "king's pool," Neh. ii. 14), from the top of which a series of corridors led to an exit on the Hill of Ophel. Hezekiah cut off the flow of water to the north and had a conduit excavated through the rock, thus leading the water within the city limits to the Siloam Pool (II Chron. xxxii. 30; II Kings xx. 20). This Siloam conduit, which was discovered in 1880, is 1,757 feet in length. At about 19 feet from the Siloam end was found the famous inscription detailing the manner in which the undertaking had been carried out (see Siloam Inscription). The usefulness of this work may be gaged by the fact that it is specially mentioned to Hezekiah's honor by Ben Sira (Ecclus. [Sirach] xlviii. 17). It seems probable also that this king built a special fortification around Siloam ("wall of the pool of Siloah," Neh. iii. 15; "between the two walls," Isa. xxxii. 11; Jer. lii. 7). The graves of the common people (Jer. xxvi. 23, xxxi. 40) were probably in the Kidron Valley. The wall built by Manasseh (II Chron. xxxiii. 14) encompassed Ophel; starting west of Gihon, it must have been an additional protection for the southeastern fortifications. Its position can not be accurately determined.
Jerusalem
To Hezekiah was due also the regulation of the water-supply in Jerusalem, so that the city might be prepared for a siege. The only natural spring of real value is Gihon on the southeastern side in the Kidron Valley (now called "Virgin's Spring" or "Spring of the Steps"), which from early times seems to have been used to provide the city with water. Undoubted traces have been found of an early conduit, partly open and partly underground, which conducted the water from the spring around the hill into the city of David (perhaps the earlier "Shiloah" of Isa. viii. 6; see Schick in "Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement" [hereafter cited as "P. E. F. S."], 1886, p. 197). In 1867 a rock tunnel was discovered by Warren that brought the water westward into a basin cut in the rocks; to this access was had by a shaft from above (perhaps the "king's pool," Neh. ii. 14), from the top of which a series of corridors led to an exit on the Hill of Ophel. Hezekiah cut off the flow of water to the north and had a conduit excavated through the rock, thus leading the water within the city limits to the Siloam Pool (II Chron. xxxii. 30; II Kings xx. 20). This Siloam conduit, which was discovered in 1880, is 1,757 feet in length. At about 19 feet from the Siloam end was found the famous inscription detailing the manner in which the undertaking had been carried out (see Siloam Inscription). The usefulness of this work may be gaged by the fact that it is specially mentioned to Hezekiah's honor by Ben Sira (Ecclus. [Sirach] xlviii. 17). It seems probable also that this king built a special fortification around Siloam ("wall of the pool of Siloah," Neh. iii. 15; "between the two walls," Isa. xxxii. 11; Jer. lii. 7). The graves of the common people (Jer. xxvi. 23, xxxi. 40) were probably in the Kidron Valley. The wall built by Manasseh (II Chron. xxxiii. 14) encompassed Ophel; starting west of Gihon, it must have been an additional protection for the southeastern fortifications. Its position can not be accurately determined.
Jerusalem
Taken by Nebuchadnezzar
Taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
In the reign of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon made his first invasion into Palestine. There is no trace of a siege of Jerusalem at this time; but some of the Temple vessels were carried off (ib. xxxvi. 7). In 597 B.C., however, an encircling wall was built by the invaders, and the city invested. At the time of Jehoiachin (Jer. lii. 6) famine raged in the city. The rebellion of Zedekiah caused a second invasion in 587; and after a siege of a year and a half Jerusalem was taken on the ninth day of the fourth month (Ab), 586. The beauty and the strength of the city were destroyed. Nebuchadnezzar's general, Nebuzar-adan, burned the Temple, carrying away all the brass and the vessels; he burned also the king's palace and the larger houses of the city. The walls were razed, and a large number of the inhabitants (10,000, according to II Kings xxiv. 14) were deported and settled in various parts of Babylon; a number probably at Nippur, to judge from the names found by Hilprecht in the business documents of that city ("P. E. F. S." 1898, pp. 54, 137; Batten, "Ezra and Nehemiah," p. 57, in "S. B. O. T."). Even before this the city must have been depleted through the flight of many to Egypt (Jer. xlii. et seq.). The seat of government was removed to Mizpah (II Kings xxv. 23; Jer. xli. 1 et seq.).
Jerusalem
In the reign of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon made his first invasion into Palestine. There is no trace of a siege of Jerusalem at this time; but some of the Temple vessels were carried off (ib. xxxvi. 7). In 597 B.C., however, an encircling wall was built by the invaders, and the city invested. At the time of Jehoiachin (Jer. lii. 6) famine raged in the city. The rebellion of Zedekiah caused a second invasion in 587; and after a siege of a year and a half Jerusalem was taken on the ninth day of the fourth month (Ab), 586. The beauty and the strength of the city were destroyed. Nebuchadnezzar's general, Nebuzar-adan, burned the Temple, carrying away all the brass and the vessels; he burned also the king's palace and the larger houses of the city. The walls were razed, and a large number of the inhabitants (10,000, according to II Kings xxiv. 14) were deported and settled in various parts of Babylon; a number probably at Nippur, to judge from the names found by Hilprecht in the business documents of that city ("P. E. F. S." 1898, pp. 54, 137; Batten, "Ezra and Nehemiah," p. 57, in "S. B. O. T."). Even before this the city must have been depleted through the flight of many to Egypt (Jer. xlii. et seq.). The seat of government was removed to Mizpah (II Kings xxv. 23; Jer. xli. 1 et seq.).
Jerusalem
Rebuilt 537-516 B.C.
Rebuilt 537-516 B.C.
There are no materials for a history of Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, or even during the centuries following the return. The view advanced by Kosters and supported especially by Wildeboer and Cheyne will be criticized elsewhere (see Zerubbabel); but there seems to be no really valid ground for doubting the tradition reported by the chronicler in Ezra iii. of a first return under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel in 539, during the reign of Cyrus; though Kosters may be right in pointing out that the Judahites who had been left in the city must have continued the worship of Yhwh in some manner or other. In the seventh month of that year there was a great gathering in Jerusalem, and the altar of burnt offering was again set up—presumably upon the place it had formerly occupied. The reconstruction of the Temple was begun in the second month of the second year (537; Ezra iii. 8 et seq.). Though this was attended with great ceremony (ib. verses 10-11), it is entirely ignored by the accounts in Ezra v. 2; Hag. i. 14, ii. 15; and Zech. viii. 8, which place the commencement of the building seventeen years later, in 520, during the reign of Darius Hystaspes, under the same Zerubbabel and the high priest Jeshua. But as nothing is said in Ezra iii. of the amount of building done, it may be surmised that it did not extend beyond the mere foundations, the work being interrupted by the evil devices of the Samaritans (ib. iv.), who made complaint to the suzerain in Babylon. Even the erection of the building of the year 520 was not uninterrupted, Tatnai, governor of Cœle-Syria and Phenicia, making a second reference of the matter to Babylon necessary (Ezra vi.). It was at lengthfinished in 516 (ib. verse 15). For the Temple building itself see Temple.
It is possible that the Birah or fortress was built at this time, though it is first mentioned in Neh. ii. 8. It was twice rebuilt in later times: once ("Ant." xv. 11, § 4, "Baris") by the Hasmonean kings, and a second time by Herod, who renamed it "Tower of Antonia." It was a strong, square building in the northwestern corner of the Temple mount, of some extent, as it had several gates. It was here that the high priests' vestments were kept (ib. xviii. 4, § 3), if the tower "built" by the high priest Hyrcanus is to be identified with Antonia, as is done by Josephus.
Jerusalem
There are no materials for a history of Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, or even during the centuries following the return. The view advanced by Kosters and supported especially by Wildeboer and Cheyne will be criticized elsewhere (see Zerubbabel); but there seems to be no really valid ground for doubting the tradition reported by the chronicler in Ezra iii. of a first return under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel in 539, during the reign of Cyrus; though Kosters may be right in pointing out that the Judahites who had been left in the city must have continued the worship of Yhwh in some manner or other. In the seventh month of that year there was a great gathering in Jerusalem, and the altar of burnt offering was again set up—presumably upon the place it had formerly occupied. The reconstruction of the Temple was begun in the second month of the second year (537; Ezra iii. 8 et seq.). Though this was attended with great ceremony (ib. verses 10-11), it is entirely ignored by the accounts in Ezra v. 2; Hag. i. 14, ii. 15; and Zech. viii. 8, which place the commencement of the building seventeen years later, in 520, during the reign of Darius Hystaspes, under the same Zerubbabel and the high priest Jeshua. But as nothing is said in Ezra iii. of the amount of building done, it may be surmised that it did not extend beyond the mere foundations, the work being interrupted by the evil devices of the Samaritans (ib. iv.), who made complaint to the suzerain in Babylon. Even the erection of the building of the year 520 was not uninterrupted, Tatnai, governor of Cœle-Syria and Phenicia, making a second reference of the matter to Babylon necessary (Ezra vi.). It was at lengthfinished in 516 (ib. verse 15). For the Temple building itself see Temple.
It is possible that the Birah or fortress was built at this time, though it is first mentioned in Neh. ii. 8. It was twice rebuilt in later times: once ("Ant." xv. 11, § 4, "Baris") by the Hasmonean kings, and a second time by Herod, who renamed it "Tower of Antonia." It was a strong, square building in the northwestern corner of the Temple mount, of some extent, as it had several gates. It was here that the high priests' vestments were kept (ib. xviii. 4, § 3), if the tower "built" by the high priest Hyrcanus is to be identified with Antonia, as is done by Josephus.
Jerusalem
The Night Ride of Nehemiah
The Night Ride of Nehemiah.
The population of the city was further augmented by the expedition under Ezra in the year 458, which comprised 1,496 men, besides women and children. It was through Ezra and Nehemiah that the new community was organized. It is difficult to estimate accurately the relation of these two to each other; but the material building up of the city seems to have been due to the latter. Whatever theories may exist regarding the composition of the Book of Nehemiah, the data there given are old and trustworthy. Nehemiah's night journey around the walls (Neh. ii. 13 et seq.), the account of the building operations (ib. iii.), and the route of the processions (ib. xii.), would give definite information as regards the extent of the city if the identification of the gates were in every case certain. A thorough exposition of the archeological data to be gotten from Nehemiah's accounts will be found in Ryssel's commentary ("Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch"). The most recent study of the subject has been commenced by H. Vincent in "Revue Biblique," 1904, pp. 56 et seq. In his night ride Nehemiah starts from the Valley Gate; goes in the direction of the well 'En-Tannin, then to the Dung Gate, the Fountain Gate, and the Pool of the King; passes through the valley; and returns to the Valley Gate. The location of these various places depends upon the position assigned to the Valley Gate. The word "Gai" undoubtedly stands for "Gai ben Hinnom"; and this must be identical with the Wadi al-Rababi on the south and its continuation northward on the west. Bliss has uncovered a line of wall starting southwest of the old Pool of Siloam and running in a northwestern direction, as well as remains of a gate 600 feet from what was the southwestern corner of the ancient city. This was probably the Valley Gate, although many identify the latter with the present Jaffa Gate, on the western side of the city. From the Valley Gate Nehemiah, taking the direction of the Serpents' Pool ("'En-Tannin"; sometimes identified with the pool of that name mentioned by Josephus ["B. J." v. 3, § 2]; by Caspari and Schick ["Z. D. P. V." xiv. 42], with the aqueduct which led the water from the Pools of Solomon; by Stade and Mitchell, however, with En-rogel ["Jour. Bib. Lit." 1903, p. 114]), proceeded to the Dung Gate, 1,000 cubits from his starting-point, and possibly the Harsith Gate of Jer. xix. 2, which in turn may be identified with a second gate, discovered by Bliss, 1,900 feet east of the first. He then went east, crossed the Tyropœon below the present Birkat al-Hamra, and came to the Fountain Gate near the Siloam Pool (here called the "pool of the king"), perhaps the "gate between two walls" through which King Zedekiah fled (II Kings xxv. 4; Jer. xxxix. 4, lii. 4), traces of which have also been found by Bliss. Nehemiah was then in the Kidron Valley, and, being unable to proceed farther along the walls, he returned to the city through the Valley Gate. It seems therefore that he examined only the southern and the southwestern walls of the city.
(see image) Southern Wall of Jerusalem at Various Times.(After Bliss.)
Jerusalem
The population of the city was further augmented by the expedition under Ezra in the year 458, which comprised 1,496 men, besides women and children. It was through Ezra and Nehemiah that the new community was organized. It is difficult to estimate accurately the relation of these two to each other; but the material building up of the city seems to have been due to the latter. Whatever theories may exist regarding the composition of the Book of Nehemiah, the data there given are old and trustworthy. Nehemiah's night journey around the walls (Neh. ii. 13 et seq.), the account of the building operations (ib. iii.), and the route of the processions (ib. xii.), would give definite information as regards the extent of the city if the identification of the gates were in every case certain. A thorough exposition of the archeological data to be gotten from Nehemiah's accounts will be found in Ryssel's commentary ("Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch"). The most recent study of the subject has been commenced by H. Vincent in "Revue Biblique," 1904, pp. 56 et seq. In his night ride Nehemiah starts from the Valley Gate; goes in the direction of the well 'En-Tannin, then to the Dung Gate, the Fountain Gate, and the Pool of the King; passes through the valley; and returns to the Valley Gate. The location of these various places depends upon the position assigned to the Valley Gate. The word "Gai" undoubtedly stands for "Gai ben Hinnom"; and this must be identical with the Wadi al-Rababi on the south and its continuation northward on the west. Bliss has uncovered a line of wall starting southwest of the old Pool of Siloam and running in a northwestern direction, as well as remains of a gate 600 feet from what was the southwestern corner of the ancient city. This was probably the Valley Gate, although many identify the latter with the present Jaffa Gate, on the western side of the city. From the Valley Gate Nehemiah, taking the direction of the Serpents' Pool ("'En-Tannin"; sometimes identified with the pool of that name mentioned by Josephus ["B. J." v. 3, § 2]; by Caspari and Schick ["Z. D. P. V." xiv. 42], with the aqueduct which led the water from the Pools of Solomon; by Stade and Mitchell, however, with En-rogel ["Jour. Bib. Lit." 1903, p. 114]), proceeded to the Dung Gate, 1,000 cubits from his starting-point, and possibly the Harsith Gate of Jer. xix. 2, which in turn may be identified with a second gate, discovered by Bliss, 1,900 feet east of the first. He then went east, crossed the Tyropœon below the present Birkat al-Hamra, and came to the Fountain Gate near the Siloam Pool (here called the "pool of the king"), perhaps the "gate between two walls" through which King Zedekiah fled (II Kings xxv. 4; Jer. xxxix. 4, lii. 4), traces of which have also been found by Bliss. Nehemiah was then in the Kidron Valley, and, being unable to proceed farther along the walls, he returned to the city through the Valley Gate. It seems therefore that he examined only the southern and the southwestern walls of the city.
(see image) Southern Wall of Jerusalem at Various Times.(After Bliss.)
Jerusalem
The Gates
The Gates.
The walls and gates as rebuilt under Nehemiah's directions are succinctly noticed in Neh. iii.; and their order is partially assured by the reverse enumeration, ib. xii. 38 et seq. The Sheep Gate is naturally to be sought for north of the Temple area. It is identified by some with the "gate of Benjamin" (Jer. xxxvii. 13, xxxviii. 7). The Fish Gate was so named after Tyrians who brought fish to Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16), and was situated on the northwestern side near the present Damascus Gate (II Chron. xxxiii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). The latter, which was strengthened by Manasseh, is sometimes called the "middle gate" (Jer. xxxix. 3). The "old gate" or "gate of the old pool"—referring perhaps to the Patriarch's Pool northwest of the city—is called also "Sha'ar ha-Rishon" (Zech. xiv. 10) and "Sha'ar ha-Pinnah" (II Kings xiv. 13; Jer. xxxi. 38; "ha-Poneh," IIChron. xxv. 23; "ha-Pinnim," Zech. xiv. 10). The Ephraim Gate led to the chief road to the north, where the throne of the Persian governor was placed; which throne can not have been in another place, Mizpah, the residence of the governor, as Ryle and Mitchell suggest. Where the "broad wall" was can not now be determined. In connection with it, reference is made to the "tower of the furnaces" (Neh. iii. 11), mentioned before the Valley Gate, and which was probably somewhere along the Tyropœon Valley. Schick, however ("Z. D. P. V." xiv. 51), places it near the Tower of David; Stade, about the middle of the western wall; and Mitchell (ib. p. 128), at the southwestern corner of the ancient city, where the remains of a tower whose base was hewn out of the native rock have been found ("P. E. F. S." 1875, p. 83). Then came the Dung Gate and the Fountain Gate mentioned above, a wall or a dam enclosing the Siloam Spring (i.e., the "lower pool," Birkat al-Hamra), in the neighborhood of which were the king's gardens (II Kings xxv. 4), the king's wine-presses (Zech. xiv. 10), and the steps leading down from the city of David on the eastern side of the hill ("Z. D. P. V." xi. 12), an artificial pool (Neh. iii. 16), and the "house of the warriors," either a tower or a species of barracks. The line of wall then turned ("angle," ib. verse 19) apparently to the northeast. Here two corners were found by Guthe ("Z. D. P. V." v. 298), between which turning and Ophel were the houses of the high priest and the dwelling-places of the Nethinim (Neh. iii. 21-23). Then came the upper royal palace, a projecting tower the ruins of which have been found, the "court of the guard" (ib. 25, 26), and the Water Gate (ib. iii. 26, xii. 37), near which there must have been an open space (ib. viii. 1, 3, 16); it was probably so called because a road led from it to the Virgin's Spring. The Horse Gate (ib. iii. 28) was probably toward the southeastern corner of the Temple. In former times it was directly connected with the palace (II Kings xi. 16; II Chron. xxiii. 15; comp. Jer. xxxi. 40). The other gates of the Temple wall on the east were the "gate of Benjamin" (Jer. xx. 2; R. V. "upper gate of Benjamin"; Zech. xiv. 10); the "gate of the Guard," generally located at the northeastern corner of the Temple area, though Schick and Mitchell are inclined to place it south of the Temple; and the "gate Miphkad" (Neh. iii. 31). The Sheep Gate on the north ended the work.
In addition to the walls, Nehemiah did much for the rebuilding of the city itself. A house for the high priest is mentioned (Neh. iii. 20), as are also dwellings for the other priests near the Horse Gate (ib. iii. 28); while, as stated above, the Nethinim had residences on Ophel, west of the Water Gate (ib. iii. 26), where there was also an outlying tower. The king's palace seems still to have been standing, or to have been rebuilt (ib. iii. 25), and was also flanked by a tower. It has been computed that the whole city thus included within the walls (Temple mount, the old city, and its southern additions) occupied about 200 acres, and covered both the eastern and the western hills. It is said to have been "large and great" (ib. vii. 4); but there were few houses built for the common people.
Jerusalem
The walls and gates as rebuilt under Nehemiah's directions are succinctly noticed in Neh. iii.; and their order is partially assured by the reverse enumeration, ib. xii. 38 et seq. The Sheep Gate is naturally to be sought for north of the Temple area. It is identified by some with the "gate of Benjamin" (Jer. xxxvii. 13, xxxviii. 7). The Fish Gate was so named after Tyrians who brought fish to Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16), and was situated on the northwestern side near the present Damascus Gate (II Chron. xxxiii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). The latter, which was strengthened by Manasseh, is sometimes called the "middle gate" (Jer. xxxix. 3). The "old gate" or "gate of the old pool"—referring perhaps to the Patriarch's Pool northwest of the city—is called also "Sha'ar ha-Rishon" (Zech. xiv. 10) and "Sha'ar ha-Pinnah" (II Kings xiv. 13; Jer. xxxi. 38; "ha-Poneh," IIChron. xxv. 23; "ha-Pinnim," Zech. xiv. 10). The Ephraim Gate led to the chief road to the north, where the throne of the Persian governor was placed; which throne can not have been in another place, Mizpah, the residence of the governor, as Ryle and Mitchell suggest. Where the "broad wall" was can not now be determined. In connection with it, reference is made to the "tower of the furnaces" (Neh. iii. 11), mentioned before the Valley Gate, and which was probably somewhere along the Tyropœon Valley. Schick, however ("Z. D. P. V." xiv. 51), places it near the Tower of David; Stade, about the middle of the western wall; and Mitchell (ib. p. 128), at the southwestern corner of the ancient city, where the remains of a tower whose base was hewn out of the native rock have been found ("P. E. F. S." 1875, p. 83). Then came the Dung Gate and the Fountain Gate mentioned above, a wall or a dam enclosing the Siloam Spring (i.e., the "lower pool," Birkat al-Hamra), in the neighborhood of which were the king's gardens (II Kings xxv. 4), the king's wine-presses (Zech. xiv. 10), and the steps leading down from the city of David on the eastern side of the hill ("Z. D. P. V." xi. 12), an artificial pool (Neh. iii. 16), and the "house of the warriors," either a tower or a species of barracks. The line of wall then turned ("angle," ib. verse 19) apparently to the northeast. Here two corners were found by Guthe ("Z. D. P. V." v. 298), between which turning and Ophel were the houses of the high priest and the dwelling-places of the Nethinim (Neh. iii. 21-23). Then came the upper royal palace, a projecting tower the ruins of which have been found, the "court of the guard" (ib. 25, 26), and the Water Gate (ib. iii. 26, xii. 37), near which there must have been an open space (ib. viii. 1, 3, 16); it was probably so called because a road led from it to the Virgin's Spring. The Horse Gate (ib. iii. 28) was probably toward the southeastern corner of the Temple. In former times it was directly connected with the palace (II Kings xi. 16; II Chron. xxiii. 15; comp. Jer. xxxi. 40). The other gates of the Temple wall on the east were the "gate of Benjamin" (Jer. xx. 2; R. V. "upper gate of Benjamin"; Zech. xiv. 10); the "gate of the Guard," generally located at the northeastern corner of the Temple area, though Schick and Mitchell are inclined to place it south of the Temple; and the "gate Miphkad" (Neh. iii. 31). The Sheep Gate on the north ended the work.
In addition to the walls, Nehemiah did much for the rebuilding of the city itself. A house for the high priest is mentioned (Neh. iii. 20), as are also dwellings for the other priests near the Horse Gate (ib. iii. 28); while, as stated above, the Nethinim had residences on Ophel, west of the Water Gate (ib. iii. 26), where there was also an outlying tower. The king's palace seems still to have been standing, or to have been rebuilt (ib. iii. 25), and was also flanked by a tower. It has been computed that the whole city thus included within the walls (Temple mount, the old city, and its southern additions) occupied about 200 acres, and covered both the eastern and the western hills. It is said to have been "large and great" (ib. vii. 4); but there were few houses built for the common people.
Jerusalem
Seized by the Persians
Seized by the Persians.
No events during the Persian period are recorded with any certainty. Josephus has a story that one Bagoses (Bagoas), "the general of Artaxerxes' army," used a quarrel between the high priest John and his brother Jesus (in which the latter was slain) as a pretext to enter the Temple with his Persian soldiers and to "punish the Jews for seven years" ("Ant." xi. 7, § 1; Eusebius, ed. Schoene, ii. 112). This Bagoas is supposed to be the general of the same name under Artaxerxes Ochus (357-338), who with Memnon put down an Egyptian revolt. The identification is quite uncertain, in spite of the authority of Nöldeke ("Aufsätze," p. 78), Wellhausen ("I. J. G." p. 146), and Cheyne ("Introduction to Isaiah," p. 360). Winckler places the occurrence under Cambyses (Schrader, "K. A. T." 3d ed., pp. 120, 291).
Jerusalem
No events during the Persian period are recorded with any certainty. Josephus has a story that one Bagoses (Bagoas), "the general of Artaxerxes' army," used a quarrel between the high priest John and his brother Jesus (in which the latter was slain) as a pretext to enter the Temple with his Persian soldiers and to "punish the Jews for seven years" ("Ant." xi. 7, § 1; Eusebius, ed. Schoene, ii. 112). This Bagoas is supposed to be the general of the same name under Artaxerxes Ochus (357-338), who with Memnon put down an Egyptian revolt. The identification is quite uncertain, in spite of the authority of Nöldeke ("Aufsätze," p. 78), Wellhausen ("I. J. G." p. 146), and Cheyne ("Introduction to Isaiah," p. 360). Winckler places the occurrence under Cambyses (Schrader, "K. A. T." 3d ed., pp. 120, 291).
Jerusalem
Under the Seleucids
Under the Seleucids.
Whether Alexander the Great was really in Jerusalem after the siege of Gaza in 332 is a matter of dispute, though it is hardly to be supposed that he was in Palestine without visiting the capital. The Talmud (Yoma 69a, etc.) has a reminiscence of such a visit, which may be true despite the legendary character of the details in Josephus (Grätz, "Gesch." ii., 2d. ed., p. 221). The latter says ("Ant." xi. 8, §§ 4 et seq.) that Alexander exempted its inhabitants from the payment of tribute in the seventh year (see Jew. Encyc. i. 341, s.v. Alexander the Great). But the city naturally suffered during the wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids which followed the disruption of Alexander's Asiatic empire. Ptolemy Soter seized Jerusalem (in 320 or 305) on a Sabbath-day, as Josephus says ("Ant." xii. 1, § 1) on the authority of Agatharchides of Cnidus, and the priests probably paid tribute to him. In 203 the city was taken by Antiochus; but it was retaken in 199 by the Egyptian general Scopas. The Jews inclined to the Seleucids. According to Josephus ("Ant." xiii. 3, § 3), they even assisted Antiochus when in 198 he seized the (Egyptian?) garrison which was in the citadel of Jerusalem, and admitted him and his soldiers into the city. The Syrian king showed his gratitude by assisting in the rebuilding of various places which had fallen into decay, by repopulating the city, by supplying material for the sacrifices, and by removing part of the heavy taxes. It seems probable that Simon, the high priest, using the permission to offer sacrifices, had the Temple repaired, a cistern dug, the wall for the Temple ("hekal melek") built, and the city fortified; for all of which he is praised by Ben Sira (Ecclus. [Sirach.] l. 1-4).
Jerusalem
Whether Alexander the Great was really in Jerusalem after the siege of Gaza in 332 is a matter of dispute, though it is hardly to be supposed that he was in Palestine without visiting the capital. The Talmud (Yoma 69a, etc.) has a reminiscence of such a visit, which may be true despite the legendary character of the details in Josephus (Grätz, "Gesch." ii., 2d. ed., p. 221). The latter says ("Ant." xi. 8, §§ 4 et seq.) that Alexander exempted its inhabitants from the payment of tribute in the seventh year (see Jew. Encyc. i. 341, s.v. Alexander the Great). But the city naturally suffered during the wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids which followed the disruption of Alexander's Asiatic empire. Ptolemy Soter seized Jerusalem (in 320 or 305) on a Sabbath-day, as Josephus says ("Ant." xii. 1, § 1) on the authority of Agatharchides of Cnidus, and the priests probably paid tribute to him. In 203 the city was taken by Antiochus; but it was retaken in 199 by the Egyptian general Scopas. The Jews inclined to the Seleucids. According to Josephus ("Ant." xiii. 3, § 3), they even assisted Antiochus when in 198 he seized the (Egyptian?) garrison which was in the citadel of Jerusalem, and admitted him and his soldiers into the city. The Syrian king showed his gratitude by assisting in the rebuilding of various places which had fallen into decay, by repopulating the city, by supplying material for the sacrifices, and by removing part of the heavy taxes. It seems probable that Simon, the high priest, using the permission to offer sacrifices, had the Temple repaired, a cistern dug, the wall for the Temple ("hekal melek") built, and the city fortified; for all of which he is praised by Ben Sira (Ecclus. [Sirach.] l. 1-4).
Jerusalem
Described by Aristeas and Hecatæus
Described by Aristeas and Hecatæus.
If the letter of Aristeas dates from about 200 B.C., as Schürer and Abrahams hold, it gives a fair description of the appearance of the city and especially of the Temple at that time. The city comprised 40 stadia, and the wall had towers. The narrator expresses his especial astonishment at the many canals that carried off the blood and the water from the Temple, and at the magnificence of the service. A similar description of Jerusalem at this time occurs in the fragments ascribed to Hecatæus of Abdera (cited by Josephus,"Contra Ap." i. 22), who speaks of the city as being 50 stadia in extent, with 120,000 inhabitants; of the wall surrounding the Temple area (150 miles in length, 44 miles wide); and of the altars and priests in the Temple (Reinach, "Textes," p. 232). The "flagrant mistakes" which the letter of Aristeas is supposed to contain (Kautzsch, "Apokryphen," ii. 12, note b) are not apparent. This view rests upon his description (§§ 100-104) of the Acra or citadel, which was the chief defense of the Temple area. That such an Acra existed is evidenced, in spite of Wendland, Willrich, and Wellhausen, by the presence of the Syrian garrison left there by the Egyptian general Scopas (II Macc. iv. 27; "Ant." xii. 3, § 1), which garrison was driven out by Simon Maccabeus (I Macc. xiii. 49). Where the Acra stood is doubtful, as the word is applied by Josephus in a general sense to various citadels. Under the Hasmoneans this defense was finally razed, the hill on which it stood being leveled, in order that the Temple might rise high above all other buildings, and to prevent the occupation of the citadel by an enemy ("Ant." xiii. 6, § 7). The northwestern part of the Temple mount can not be meant, as the rock upon which the Antonia was built still exists. In addition, I Maccabees speaks repeatedly of the Greeks fortifying themselves in the "city of David" (i. 33, ii. 31, vii. 32, xiv. 36), which overlooked the Temple ("Ant." xii. 9, § 3; 10, § 5).
The spread of Hellenism was in many ways fatal to the Jews of Jerusalem. It introduced factions into the life of the people; and the contests between the brothers Jason and Menelaus for the high-priestly office occasioned the presence of Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.), who plundered the Temple of its treasures and killed a large number of the inhabitants (I Macc. i. 20; II Macc. v. 12; "Ant." xii. 5, § 3; "B. J." i. 1, § 1). Two years later his general and farmer of the taxes, Apollonius, attacked Jerusalem with a large army; took the city, also killing a large number; set fire to many of its buildings, razed some of its walls, and carried away many captives. The altar of the Temple was desecrated; and the Temple itself was given over to heathen worship. Apollonius built a strong wall around the Acra, which he evidently enlarged (I Macc. i. 29; II Macc. v. 24), and in which he entrenched the Syrian garrison. Jerusalem must, however, have commenced to take on the appearance of a Hellenic city. There was a gymnasium built on the hill west of the Temple (I Macc. i. 14; "Ant." xii. 5, § 1); probably the Xystus (Colonnade), which was joined to the Temple plateau by a bridge.
Jerusalem
If the letter of Aristeas dates from about 200 B.C., as Schürer and Abrahams hold, it gives a fair description of the appearance of the city and especially of the Temple at that time. The city comprised 40 stadia, and the wall had towers. The narrator expresses his especial astonishment at the many canals that carried off the blood and the water from the Temple, and at the magnificence of the service. A similar description of Jerusalem at this time occurs in the fragments ascribed to Hecatæus of Abdera (cited by Josephus,"Contra Ap." i. 22), who speaks of the city as being 50 stadia in extent, with 120,000 inhabitants; of the wall surrounding the Temple area (150 miles in length, 44 miles wide); and of the altars and priests in the Temple (Reinach, "Textes," p. 232). The "flagrant mistakes" which the letter of Aristeas is supposed to contain (Kautzsch, "Apokryphen," ii. 12, note b) are not apparent. This view rests upon his description (§§ 100-104) of the Acra or citadel, which was the chief defense of the Temple area. That such an Acra existed is evidenced, in spite of Wendland, Willrich, and Wellhausen, by the presence of the Syrian garrison left there by the Egyptian general Scopas (II Macc. iv. 27; "Ant." xii. 3, § 1), which garrison was driven out by Simon Maccabeus (I Macc. xiii. 49). Where the Acra stood is doubtful, as the word is applied by Josephus in a general sense to various citadels. Under the Hasmoneans this defense was finally razed, the hill on which it stood being leveled, in order that the Temple might rise high above all other buildings, and to prevent the occupation of the citadel by an enemy ("Ant." xiii. 6, § 7). The northwestern part of the Temple mount can not be meant, as the rock upon which the Antonia was built still exists. In addition, I Maccabees speaks repeatedly of the Greeks fortifying themselves in the "city of David" (i. 33, ii. 31, vii. 32, xiv. 36), which overlooked the Temple ("Ant." xii. 9, § 3; 10, § 5).
The spread of Hellenism was in many ways fatal to the Jews of Jerusalem. It introduced factions into the life of the people; and the contests between the brothers Jason and Menelaus for the high-priestly office occasioned the presence of Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.), who plundered the Temple of its treasures and killed a large number of the inhabitants (I Macc. i. 20; II Macc. v. 12; "Ant." xii. 5, § 3; "B. J." i. 1, § 1). Two years later his general and farmer of the taxes, Apollonius, attacked Jerusalem with a large army; took the city, also killing a large number; set fire to many of its buildings, razed some of its walls, and carried away many captives. The altar of the Temple was desecrated; and the Temple itself was given over to heathen worship. Apollonius built a strong wall around the Acra, which he evidently enlarged (I Macc. i. 29; II Macc. v. 24), and in which he entrenched the Syrian garrison. Jerusalem must, however, have commenced to take on the appearance of a Hellenic city. There was a gymnasium built on the hill west of the Temple (I Macc. i. 14; "Ant." xii. 5, § 1); probably the Xystus (Colonnade), which was joined to the Temple plateau by a bridge.
Jerusalem
Recaptured by Judas Maccabeus
Recaptured by Judas Maccabeus.
In 165 Judas Maccabeus was at length successful in driving the Syrians out of the Temple and out of the greater part of the city, in honor of which the Feast of Hanukkah was instituted. The Temple mount was fortified with high walls and strong towers (I Macc. iv. 60, vi. 7). The citadel, however, was not freed until the time of Simon (142). In 163 Jerusalem was once more besieged, by Antiochus V., Eupator. Failing to take it, he feigned a peace; and, entering the city, he caused the wall around the Temple area to be razed (I Macc. vi. 60 et seq.; "Ant." xii. 9, §§ 5-7). It was rebuilt by the Maccabean Jonathan with rectangular stones, and he also repaired the walls of the city (I Macc. x. 10, 11). In 143 he raised the wall still higher, rebuilding a portion called "Caphenatha," which led down to the Kidron Valley, and which had fallen into decay (ib. xii. 36, 37). Finally, he built a wall to separate effectually the Acra from the rest of the city (ib.). This work was completed by his successor, Simon (ib. xiii. 10), who as related above expelled the Syrian garrison and leveled the hill of the Acra. The author of I Maccabees, however, knows nothing of this leveling; in xiv. 37 he speaks of Simon's fortifying the citadel, and in xv. 28 he mentions it as still existing. Wellhausen ("I. J. G." p. 227) supposes that the work was done at the time of John Hyrcanus. No certainty can be reached on this subject; but that the leveling occurred is proved by the various groundlevels as they exist to-day (Schürer, "Gesch." i. 195, note 14). Under Hyrcanus the city was once again besieged, by Antiochus VII., Sidetes (134 B.C.). Towers were raised by him opposite the northern wall; and great suffering ensued. On this occasion Hyrcanus opened the sepulcher of David and took out 3,000 talents ("Ant." vii. 15, § 3; "B. J." i. 2, § 5). A truce was made and, while the Syrian garrison was not admitted, some part of the fortifications around the city was leveled ("Ant." xiii. 8, §§ 2-4); it seems, however, to have been soon rebuilt (I Macc. xvi. 23).
Jerusalem
In 165 Judas Maccabeus was at length successful in driving the Syrians out of the Temple and out of the greater part of the city, in honor of which the Feast of Hanukkah was instituted. The Temple mount was fortified with high walls and strong towers (I Macc. iv. 60, vi. 7). The citadel, however, was not freed until the time of Simon (142). In 163 Jerusalem was once more besieged, by Antiochus V., Eupator. Failing to take it, he feigned a peace; and, entering the city, he caused the wall around the Temple area to be razed (I Macc. vi. 60 et seq.; "Ant." xii. 9, §§ 5-7). It was rebuilt by the Maccabean Jonathan with rectangular stones, and he also repaired the walls of the city (I Macc. x. 10, 11). In 143 he raised the wall still higher, rebuilding a portion called "Caphenatha," which led down to the Kidron Valley, and which had fallen into decay (ib. xii. 36, 37). Finally, he built a wall to separate effectually the Acra from the rest of the city (ib.). This work was completed by his successor, Simon (ib. xiii. 10), who as related above expelled the Syrian garrison and leveled the hill of the Acra. The author of I Maccabees, however, knows nothing of this leveling; in xiv. 37 he speaks of Simon's fortifying the citadel, and in xv. 28 he mentions it as still existing. Wellhausen ("I. J. G." p. 227) supposes that the work was done at the time of John Hyrcanus. No certainty can be reached on this subject; but that the leveling occurred is proved by the various groundlevels as they exist to-day (Schürer, "Gesch." i. 195, note 14). Under Hyrcanus the city was once again besieged, by Antiochus VII., Sidetes (134 B.C.). Towers were raised by him opposite the northern wall; and great suffering ensued. On this occasion Hyrcanus opened the sepulcher of David and took out 3,000 talents ("Ant." vii. 15, § 3; "B. J." i. 2, § 5). A truce was made and, while the Syrian garrison was not admitted, some part of the fortifications around the city was leveled ("Ant." xiii. 8, §§ 2-4); it seems, however, to have been soon rebuilt (I Macc. xvi. 23).
Jerusalem
Captured by Pompey
Captured by Pompey.
The Roman power was hovering not far from Judea. It was soon to fasten its claws upon Jerusalem, in consequence of the fratricidal war between Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. Aristobulus had fortified himself on the Temple mount, where he was besieged by Hyrcanus, aided by the Idumean Aretas. Pompey was appealed to by both combatants; and, not wishing to decide in favor of either, he moved against the city (66 B.C.). The war party had entrenched itself behind the walls in the northern part of the Temple area, and day after day Pompey raised a bank on which the Roman battering-rams were placed. These finally broke down one of the towers and made breaches in the wall (Tacitus, "Hist." v. 9; Dio Cassius, xxxvii. 16). Josephus ("Ant." xiv. 4, § 4; "B. J." i. 7, § 12) says that 12,000 Jews perished, and that many houses were fired by the Jews themselves. Though the Temple was not touched, the bridge crossing the Tyropœon to the Xystus was destroyed; this, however, was rebuilt later ("B. J." ii. 16, § 4). Jerusalem thus became (in the autumn of 63) the capital of one of the five provinces into which Palestine was divided ("Ant." xiv. 5, § 4; "B. J." i. 8, § 5); but this arrangement was not of long duration. The Syrian proconsul M. Lucinius Crassus despoiled the Temple, taking 2,000 talents of money and all the golden objects he could find ("Ant." xiv. 7, § 1; "B. J." i. 8, § 8). Permission to rebuild the walls was given by Julius Cæsar ("Ant." xiv. 10, § 5). More blood was shed in the conflicts between Antigonus, Phasael, and Herod, the sons of the Idumean Antipater; and in the year 40 the Parthians, under Pacorus and Barzapharnes, occupied Jerusalem and plundered it and the surroundingcountry ("Ant." xiv. 13, § 9). The city itself was beleaguered by Herod (37 B.C.) and the Roman general Sosius, the attack coming again from the north. After forty days the first wall was taken; after fifteen more, the second; finally, the Temple and the upper city were captured and a terrible slaughter ensued ("Ant." xiv. 16, § 3; "B. J." i. 18, § 2).
Jerusalem
The Roman power was hovering not far from Judea. It was soon to fasten its claws upon Jerusalem, in consequence of the fratricidal war between Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. Aristobulus had fortified himself on the Temple mount, where he was besieged by Hyrcanus, aided by the Idumean Aretas. Pompey was appealed to by both combatants; and, not wishing to decide in favor of either, he moved against the city (66 B.C.). The war party had entrenched itself behind the walls in the northern part of the Temple area, and day after day Pompey raised a bank on which the Roman battering-rams were placed. These finally broke down one of the towers and made breaches in the wall (Tacitus, "Hist." v. 9; Dio Cassius, xxxvii. 16). Josephus ("Ant." xiv. 4, § 4; "B. J." i. 7, § 12) says that 12,000 Jews perished, and that many houses were fired by the Jews themselves. Though the Temple was not touched, the bridge crossing the Tyropœon to the Xystus was destroyed; this, however, was rebuilt later ("B. J." ii. 16, § 4). Jerusalem thus became (in the autumn of 63) the capital of one of the five provinces into which Palestine was divided ("Ant." xiv. 5, § 4; "B. J." i. 8, § 5); but this arrangement was not of long duration. The Syrian proconsul M. Lucinius Crassus despoiled the Temple, taking 2,000 talents of money and all the golden objects he could find ("Ant." xiv. 7, § 1; "B. J." i. 8, § 8). Permission to rebuild the walls was given by Julius Cæsar ("Ant." xiv. 10, § 5). More blood was shed in the conflicts between Antigonus, Phasael, and Herod, the sons of the Idumean Antipater; and in the year 40 the Parthians, under Pacorus and Barzapharnes, occupied Jerusalem and plundered it and the surroundingcountry ("Ant." xiv. 13, § 9). The city itself was beleaguered by Herod (37 B.C.) and the Roman general Sosius, the attack coming again from the north. After forty days the first wall was taken; after fifteen more, the second; finally, the Temple and the upper city were captured and a terrible slaughter ensued ("Ant." xiv. 16, § 3; "B. J." i. 18, § 2).
Jerusalem
Buildings of Herod
Buildings of Herod.
With the accession of Herod the city entered on a period of outward brilliancy. He was the great building king, and is renowned especially for the palace that he erected and for the Temple that he restored. The palace was built (24 B.C.) upon the extreme western part near the present Jaffa Gate, where to-day are the barracks and the Armenian Garden. It was walled in to the height of 30 cubits; it had towers, many porticos in which were pillars, and large chambers; and outside were groves of trees, a deep canal, cisterns, and brazen statues, all of which excite the admiration of Josephus. Herod's restoration of the Temple, begun in 20 B.C. (finished in 62-64 C.E.), was carried out with great magnificence. He built also a theater, and in the plain ("P. E. F. S." 1887, p. 161) an amphitheater covered with "inscriptions of the great actions of Cæsar" ("Ant." xv. 8, § 1; a hippodrome, according to "B. J." ii. 3, § 1), as well as a town hall, near the present maHkamah; and in the northeast he erected a monument to himself ("B. J." v. 12, § 2), which can not be exactly located. He enlarged the Baris commanding the Temple on the north, and renamed it "Antonia." It was connected with the Temple by a flight of stairs (Acts xxi. 35). He does not seem to have added to the walls, but to have strengthened and beautified them to the north of his palace by four towers called respectively "Psephinus" (an octagon 70 cubits high), "Hippicus" (a square of 25 cubits), "Mariamne" (a square of 40 cubits), and "Phasael" (a square of 30 cubits). In these towers were reservoirs and living-rooms; and they had battlements and turrets ("B. J." v. 4, § 3). Of the other features of the city at this time may be mentioned the κολυμβήθρα Аμύγδαλον ("B. J." v. 11, § 4), which, if it represents the Hebrew "Berekat ha-Migdalim," must have been in the neighborhood of the four towers. Where the "Lishkat ha-Gazit," in which the Sanhedrin sat, was situated is not clear. According to the Mishnah, it was in the inner court of the Temple. If it is the Vcyουλή of Josephus, or rather the Vcyουλευτήριον, it must have been on the western side of the Temple mount not far from the Xystus, of which word the Hebrew "Gazit" would be a translation (Schürer, "Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 211). The city, largely extended as it was to the north, was indeed magnificent in appearance, but with a strangely Roman character imprinted upon an Oriental background.
Jerusalem
With the accession of Herod the city entered on a period of outward brilliancy. He was the great building king, and is renowned especially for the palace that he erected and for the Temple that he restored. The palace was built (24 B.C.) upon the extreme western part near the present Jaffa Gate, where to-day are the barracks and the Armenian Garden. It was walled in to the height of 30 cubits; it had towers, many porticos in which were pillars, and large chambers; and outside were groves of trees, a deep canal, cisterns, and brazen statues, all of which excite the admiration of Josephus. Herod's restoration of the Temple, begun in 20 B.C. (finished in 62-64 C.E.), was carried out with great magnificence. He built also a theater, and in the plain ("P. E. F. S." 1887, p. 161) an amphitheater covered with "inscriptions of the great actions of Cæsar" ("Ant." xv. 8, § 1; a hippodrome, according to "B. J." ii. 3, § 1), as well as a town hall, near the present maHkamah; and in the northeast he erected a monument to himself ("B. J." v. 12, § 2), which can not be exactly located. He enlarged the Baris commanding the Temple on the north, and renamed it "Antonia." It was connected with the Temple by a flight of stairs (Acts xxi. 35). He does not seem to have added to the walls, but to have strengthened and beautified them to the north of his palace by four towers called respectively "Psephinus" (an octagon 70 cubits high), "Hippicus" (a square of 25 cubits), "Mariamne" (a square of 40 cubits), and "Phasael" (a square of 30 cubits). In these towers were reservoirs and living-rooms; and they had battlements and turrets ("B. J." v. 4, § 3). Of the other features of the city at this time may be mentioned the κολυμβήθρα Аμύγδαλον ("B. J." v. 11, § 4), which, if it represents the Hebrew "Berekat ha-Migdalim," must have been in the neighborhood of the four towers. Where the "Lishkat ha-Gazit," in which the Sanhedrin sat, was situated is not clear. According to the Mishnah, it was in the inner court of the Temple. If it is the Vcyουλή of Josephus, or rather the Vcyουλευτήριον, it must have been on the western side of the Temple mount not far from the Xystus, of which word the Hebrew "Gazit" would be a translation (Schürer, "Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 211). The city, largely extended as it was to the north, was indeed magnificent in appearance, but with a strangely Roman character imprinted upon an Oriental background.
Jerusalem
Growth of Northern Suburb
Growth of Northern Suburb.
Very little change was effected in Jerusalem during the years between Herod and the destruction under Titus. Pilate increased the water-supply by building a conduit 200 furlongs in length; whence the water came, Josephus does not state ("Ant." xviii. 3, § 2). If this conduit was one of those which carried the water from the Pools of Solomon south of Bethlehem, it is probable that Pilate only repaired what already existed (Baedeker, "Palestine and Syria," p. 132). The friction between Jews and Romans increased, especially as a garrison of the latter was permanently stationed in the Antonia. The northern suburb had grown to such an extent that in the year 41 of the common era Agrippa I. repaired its walls, making them broader and higher ("Ant." xix. 7, § 2). Josephus says that the work was stopped by Emperor Claudius, and that the people completed it, probably not in as magnificent a style as had been contemplated ("B. J." v. 4, § 2). According to Schick, this work is represented by the present northern wall ("Z. D. P. V." xvii. 87). Most of the original wall has in course of time been carried off for building purposes; but as late as 1869 about forty or fifty yards were still visible (Merrill, in "P. E. F. S." 1903, p. 159). This new part of the city was over against the Antonia, but was divided from it, as a precaution, by a deep valley. Josephus calls this "Bezetha" ("B. J." v. 5, § 8), which he interprets as "New City," but which in Aramaic ought to be "Bet-Hadta." It is called "Bezeth" in I Macc. vii. 19; "Bezetho" in "Ant." xii. 10, § 2; "Bethzatha" in John v. 2 (R. V., margin; "Bethesda," A. V.; in Palestinian Syriac; see Grätz, "Gesch." iii., note 11).
The beauty of the city was enhanced by several palaces erected toward the south by the royal family of Adiabene: one by Monobaz near the wall running east from Siloam ("B. J." v. 6, § 1); another for Queen Helena ("in the middle of the Acra," "Ant." vi. 6, § 3); and a third built by Grapte, a relative of Izates ("B. J." iv. 9, § 11). A family burial-place was erected by Helena three furlongs north of the city in the form of a triple pyramid ("Ant." xx. 4, § 3). Agrippa II. built an addition to the Hasmonean palace near the Xystus, which, however, gave offense to the priests, as from it all the doings in the Temple courts could be observed. It was also a menace in time of war. They, therefore, erected a wall which effectually shut out the inner court even from the western cloisters, in which a Roman guard was kept ("Ant." xx. 8, § 11). The Antonia was also a constant menace to the Temple itself. In the time of Florus the Jews destroyed the cloisters between the two buildings ("B. J." ii. 15, § 6); but subsequently they were rebuilt.
Jerusalem
Very little change was effected in Jerusalem during the years between Herod and the destruction under Titus. Pilate increased the water-supply by building a conduit 200 furlongs in length; whence the water came, Josephus does not state ("Ant." xviii. 3, § 2). If this conduit was one of those which carried the water from the Pools of Solomon south of Bethlehem, it is probable that Pilate only repaired what already existed (Baedeker, "Palestine and Syria," p. 132). The friction between Jews and Romans increased, especially as a garrison of the latter was permanently stationed in the Antonia. The northern suburb had grown to such an extent that in the year 41 of the common era Agrippa I. repaired its walls, making them broader and higher ("Ant." xix. 7, § 2). Josephus says that the work was stopped by Emperor Claudius, and that the people completed it, probably not in as magnificent a style as had been contemplated ("B. J." v. 4, § 2). According to Schick, this work is represented by the present northern wall ("Z. D. P. V." xvii. 87). Most of the original wall has in course of time been carried off for building purposes; but as late as 1869 about forty or fifty yards were still visible (Merrill, in "P. E. F. S." 1903, p. 159). This new part of the city was over against the Antonia, but was divided from it, as a precaution, by a deep valley. Josephus calls this "Bezetha" ("B. J." v. 5, § 8), which he interprets as "New City," but which in Aramaic ought to be "Bet-Hadta." It is called "Bezeth" in I Macc. vii. 19; "Bezetho" in "Ant." xii. 10, § 2; "Bethzatha" in John v. 2 (R. V., margin; "Bethesda," A. V.; in Palestinian Syriac; see Grätz, "Gesch." iii., note 11).
The beauty of the city was enhanced by several palaces erected toward the south by the royal family of Adiabene: one by Monobaz near the wall running east from Siloam ("B. J." v. 6, § 1); another for Queen Helena ("in the middle of the Acra," "Ant." vi. 6, § 3); and a third built by Grapte, a relative of Izates ("B. J." iv. 9, § 11). A family burial-place was erected by Helena three furlongs north of the city in the form of a triple pyramid ("Ant." xx. 4, § 3). Agrippa II. built an addition to the Hasmonean palace near the Xystus, which, however, gave offense to the priests, as from it all the doings in the Temple courts could be observed. It was also a menace in time of war. They, therefore, erected a wall which effectually shut out the inner court even from the western cloisters, in which a Roman guard was kept ("Ant." xx. 8, § 11). The Antonia was also a constant menace to the Temple itself. In the time of Florus the Jews destroyed the cloisters between the two buildings ("B. J." ii. 15, § 6); but subsequently they were rebuilt.
Jerusalem
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